Translator’s note: This chapter corresponds almost line by line with Chapter 1 of T1440 Sarvāsti Vinaya Vibhāṣā /薩婆多毘尼毘婆沙. Although it is written in the form of Upāli asking the Buddha, the terminology and figures that appear in it — such as Bhikṣu Flank (The Venerable Pārśva / 胁尊者) — indicate that this text could not have appeared earlier than the 2nd century CE. Its explanations of the Three Refuges, Five Precepts, and Ten Precepts reflect the views of the Sarvāstivāda (“the school of the theory that all exists”), which may not fully align with the ordination practices found in present-day Chinese, Tibetan, or Theravāda Buddhism. This school’s view that even accomplished practitioners may still experience retreat does not necessarily align with the interpretations of other traditions.
These long passages of dialogue omit the subjects in the Chinese original, using only “Asked / 问曰” and “Answered / 答曰.” Therefore, this has been preserved as-is in the translation.
The original translator is unknown and is now cataloged in the Later Han records.
Chapter Eight: Upāli
At that time, the great assembly surrounded the Tathāgata, making offerings with reverence, honoring and praising him. Ānanda rose from his seat, observed the assembly, and knew that they harbored doubts in their hearts. They thought: “Why would the Tathāgata, the World-Honored One, permit Upāli, such a lowly person, to leave the household and go forth with the Buddha? Because he permitted him to go forth, the Buddha has been subjected to disgrace and slander from all the kings from the kṣatriya clans, increasing their disrespect toward the Buddha. Thus the faith has been defiled, the field of blessings forever lost, and even the bhikṣu Nanda, descendant of King White Purity, has developed a mind of contempt toward the Buddha.”
The Buddha told Ānanda and the great assembly: “You all listen carefully. You may say that the Tathāgata has no equality, no great compassion, no three contemplations of mindfulness, no five samādhis of wisdom, but you must not say that the bhikṣu Upāli is a lowly person. You must not say that he cultivates inferior practices, inferior vows, inferior diligence. You may say that the Tathāgata has afflictions, has impermanence and change, that he is not a body of adamantine indestructibility, but you must not say that Upāli is a lowly renunciant. The Tathāgata, with perfect knowledge of all principles throughout the world, proclaims true words; you should believe and uphold the words spoken by the Buddha. The Tathāgata, seeing the perils of birth and death, awakened by himself and attained Buddhahood. Upāli, having gone forth with the Buddha, attained the three knowledges of past lives, of the heavenly eye, and of the exhaustion of outflows. He also possesses the six supernormal powers and the eight liberations. Devas, humans, and the great assembly all venerate him. He protects and upholds the true Dharma, foremost in keeping precepts, worthy of offerings. He teaches and transforms beings, enabling them to accomplish the three marvelous fruits. Therefore you should know that Upāli has wondrous practices, is universally a Bodhisattva of great compassion, and in the past, before innumerable hundreds of thousands of trillions of Buddhas, he planted wholesome roots, being foremost in the keeping of discipline. In the Dharma of Śākyamuni Buddha as well, he is foremost in the keeping of discipline.”
At that time, when the bhikṣu Nanda heard these words of the Buddha, he rose from his seat and bowed to the feet of the great Kauṇḍinya. Then in order he came before Upāli, raised his head to stand, and only placed his palms together in a small gesture of reverence. At this moment, the Tathāgata spoke verses to the bhikṣu Nanda, saying:
“Nanda, you should know, you must not insult the poor,
nor should you be heedless in wealth and nobility. The practice of renunciation should be thus.”
When Nanda heard the Buddha’s various Dharma teachings that bring benefit and joy, his heart gave rise to delight. He then adjusted his robe and bowed with head and face at the feet of Upāli. At once the earth quaked in six ways. Nanda’s body and mind became supple and gentle, he obtained benefit, and his task was accomplished.
The Buddha told Upāli: “You quickly make the lion’s roar, speak of the Three Jewels and the Four Noble Truths, speak of the differences between the seven assemblies of householders and renunciants, speak of the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts, and up to all precepts, such as the precept of benefiting beings, the precept of purifying afflictions, the precept of regulating deportment, the dhyāna precepts, the precepts without outflows, so as to cause the flourishing of the Three Jewels.”
At this time, Upāli said to the Buddha: “World-Honored One, the Tathāgata, with the power of spiritual might, draws in and protects beings, but I have only a small and slight capacity. I will instead raise a few questions.
‘What is meant by the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and the Saṅgha? If the Three Jewels have no self-nature, why then must there be the two words ‘Dharma’ and ‘Saṅgha’? How should one who takes refuge in the Three Jewels practice? If one takes refuge in only one among the Three, it cannot be called the Three Refuges. If it is said there is the name of the Three Refuges, why then must there also be the name of the seven assemblies?’ At this time, Upāli again said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One, to what place does one abide in refuge, that it may be called refuge in the Buddha?’”
At this time, the Tathāgata answered each question, saying:
“‘Buddha’ means awakening, awakening to and knowing all dharmas and their marks. Again, all beings for a long time are asleep within the three realms. When the eye of the Buddha’s Way is opened, he awakens by himself and causes others to awaken, therefore he is called ‘Awakened.’ The Buddha, with respect to all dharmas, can awaken to all, can explain all.”
Asked: “How does the Buddha explain all dharmas to beings? Does he speak them according to the moment and occasion, responding to conditions, or does he speak following the capacities of beings who are the audience?”
Answered: “The Buddha, according to the object and at the proper time, speaks all Dharmas. Later, the disciples compiled the Dharma treasury, and divided and categorized it, writing it down. The Buddha also, in due time, established precepts for the disciples, lighter precepts and heavier precepts, precepts of residual offense and precepts without residual offense, which the disciples compiled as the Vinaya Piṭaka. Sometimes the Buddha also explained the principles of the mutual arising of cause and effect, the marks of afflictions and karma, which were compiled as the Abhidharma Piṭaka. The Dharma spoken by the Buddha to devas and humans at various times was compiled as the Increasing-by-One Āgama; this is what those who exhort and transform beings practice. The Dharma spoken by the Buddha to those of sharp faculties, speaking deep and subtle principles, was compiled as the Middle Āgama; this is what those who study the doctrines of the Buddha-Dharma practice. The various meditation Dharmas spoken by the Buddha in accord with conditions are called the Connected Āgama; this is what those who practice dhyāna cultivate. The Buddha’s refutations of the theories of outside paths were compiled as the Long Āgama.”
Asked: “If the Buddha speaks all dharmas, then in a scripture it is said: ‘The Buddha, sitting beneath a tree, picked up a twig with leaves and asked the disciples: “Are there more leaves on this twig, or are there more leaves on the tree?” The disciples replied: “There are more leaves on the tree.” The Buddha said: “The dharmas I know are like the leaves on the tree, but the dharmas I have spoken are like the leaves in my hand.” If this is so, then why is it said, ‘the Buddha speaks all dharmas’?”
Answered: “There are two kinds of ‘all’. One is all within a specific scope, and one is all in the totality. What is spoken now is all within a specific scope. Someone say, ‘The Buddha can speak all, but beings cannot completely receive; it is not that the Buddha cannot speak.’ Someone say, It should be called All-Knowledge, not called All-Speech.”
Asked: “If the Buddha knows and can speak all dharmas, then the Śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas, according to their wisdom, also explain. Why then are they not called Buddhas?”
Answered: “It is not so. The Buddha’s knowing, awakening, and explaining are all perfect and complete, but the knowing, awakening, and explaining of the Two Vehicles still have places that are not perfect and not complete. Moreover, the Buddha explains all dharmas and can thoroughly and completely explain them, but the Two Vehicles cannot. Moreover, the Buddha attains boundless dharmas and can make boundless explanations, but the Two Vehicles cannot. Moreover, in the dharmas of cultivation, there are those that are common and those that are exclusive. The Two Vehicles obtain the common dharmas, but the Buddha obtains the uncommon dharmas. The dharmas attained by the Śrāvaka Vehicle are known in common by the Three Vehicles; the dharmas attained by the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle are known in common by the Two Vehicles; but the dharmas attained only by the Buddha are not known by the Two Vehicles, only the Buddha knows them himself. Again, it is like this: however large the box is, so large is the lid. The dharma is vast, and the marks of dharma are vast without limit. The Buddha, with boundless wisdom and awakening, explains boundless dharmas. The Two Vehicles, their wisdom being limited, therefore cannot fully awaken to all dharma-marks. Moreover, between the Buddha and the persons of the Two Vehicles, there is also difference in ‘faculty’ and in ‘meaning.’ What is called ‘faculty’ refers to the faculty of wisdom; what is called ‘meaning’ refers to the understanding of dharmas that arises from wisdom. The Buddha’s ‘faculty’ and ‘meaning’ are both complete, and wisdom’s understanding of dharmas has nothing left not thoroughly penetrated. But the ‘faculty’ and ‘meaning’ of the Two Vehicles are not complete. Moreover, the true wisdom attained by the Buddha can know truly and as-it-is all dharma-marks. The dharmas known by the Two Vehicles do not thoroughly know the origin, and their understanding of phenomena is not complete. Therefore they cannot be called ‘As-It-Is Wisdom.’ Because of all these various differences, the Two Vehicles cannot be called Buddha.”
“As for what is called ‘Bhagavān,’ it cannot be spread by sound and voice, and it cannot be understood by meanings and principles. Why then is it called ‘the World-Honored One’?”
“Because the Bhagavān knows all dharmas of counteraction and antidote, therefore he is called ‘the World-Honored One.’ Again, in the world, in different places, the speech and sounds of languages are not the same, and the people of the world cannot mutually know and understand one another, but the Buddha completely knows them all. Therefore he is called ‘the World-Honored One.’ Again, the Bhikṣu Flank said: ‘All those of the Two Vehicles and ordinary beings, each when they themselves gain dharmas, or when they themselves enjoy sitting quietly in contemplation, or themselves enter dhyāna, only seek to save themselves. Or even if they have surplus causal conditions and power, still because of miserliness, they conceal and do not proclaim. The dharmas attained by the Buddha, because of the power of great compassion, he delights to proclaim for beings, to rescue and ferry beings.’ Again, what is the reason? Because the Buddha has destroyed the three poisons, therefore he is called ‘the World-Honored One.’”
Asked: “The persons of the Two Vehicles also destroy the three poisons, why then are they not called the World-Honored One?”
Answered: “It should not be said in this way. The cultivation of the Two Vehicles has advance and has retreat, but the Buddha only advances and does not retreat. Retreat is of three kinds: retreat of fruit, retreat not of fruit, and retreat in use.
“What is called ‘retreat of fruit’ refers to this: among the Śrāvakas, the upper three fruits may retreat, but the first fruit does not retreat. As for the intermediate Vehicle, there are two kinds: if across a hundred kalpas of cultivation one becomes a Pratyekabuddha, then that fruit position does not retreat. But if originally from among the three fruits if the lower Vehicle one cultivates and attains the Pratyekabuddha fruit, then that fruit may retreat. If one attains the fruit of Buddhahood, then it does not retreat.
“‘Retreat not of fruit’ refers to this: if already oriented toward the fruit of the third Vehicle but in the end does not attain it and falls back, this is called retreat not of fruit. Or if cultivating the three trainings of the bhikṣu, yet becoming lax and indolent, whatever has been cultivated falls away and is not diligently pursued, this too is called retreat not of fruit.
“‘Retreat in use’ refers to this: the dharmas attained are not applied. For example, the Buddha’s ten powers, the ten knowledges of the Small Vehicle—if one only applies one among them while the rest are not applied, this is called retreat in use. It is like reciting a scripture of one hundred thousand words: if one stops and does not continue reciting, this is called retreat in use. The lower Vehicle has retreat not of fruit, the intermediate Vehicle also has retreat not of fruit; but the Buddha has no retreat not of fruit, because in all cultivation the Buddha is never without diligence. The Two Vehicles have retreat in use, but in the Buddha Vehicle it is not necessarily so.
“Some say that within the ten powers of the Buddha, if he only applies one and does not apply the other nine, this is retreat in use. Some say the Buddha has no retreat in use; it is like reciting a scripture of two hundred thousand words—ordinary people, being of weak capacity, need one day or two days to finish reciting, but the Buddha can immediately recite it to completion. The ten powers of the Buddha are likewise: whenever there is occasion to apply them, he applies them immediately, without any obstruction, therefore the Buddha has no retreat in use.
“Others say the Buddha has no retreat in use: at the time of nirvāṇa, he did not remain abiding in the world, but was just like ordinary men, and this too was for the sake of benefiting beings. The dharmas that the Buddha applies, if they benefit beings, then he applies them; if they do not benefit beings, then he does not apply them. This is not because the Buddha cannot apply them, therefore the Buddha has no retreat in use. Concerning this matter, there are different explanations, so it is said not to be fixed. The intention of the Buddha is Inconceivable.”
Asked: “Among the Śrāvakas, why do the upper three fruits retreat, while the lowest fruit does not retreat?”
Answered: “For those of the upper three fruits, because they already have attainment, therefore they may retreat. But those who have attained the lowest fruit, regarding the other three fruits, they have not yet attained, therefore they do not retreat. It is like a hungry person who gains delicious food and will not forget it for a long time. This principle is the same.
“Again, there is a saying: the lowest fruit takes patience as the unobstructed path and wisdom as the path of liberation; while the upper three fruits take wisdom as the unobstructed path and wisdom as the path of liberation, therefore there is retreat.
“Again, there is a saying: the path of seeing does not retreat; the path of thinking does retreat. This is because the notions of purity and impurity still exist, and the ability or inability to sever afflictions depends on this. The path of thinking has the method of pressing and compelling evildoers to return to good, but the path of seeing does not. The path of seeing obtains knowledge and vision of the Four Noble Truths, and when even a slight arising of thinking appears, it does not retreat.
“Again, there is a saying: the wisdom-power of the path of seeing is great, like the main beam of a house that can suppress the small things beneath it; but the wisdom of the path of thinking is weak and therefore retreats.
“Again, there is a saying: the path of seeing, with the two minds of patience and wisdom in the desire realm, can cut off the nine grades of afflictions of that realm; and with the two minds of patience and wisdom in the higher realms, can cut off seventy-two grades of afflictions, encompassing the formless realm altogether, therefore it does not retreat.
“From these meanings it is seen that the Buddha alone is uniquely named ‘the World-Honored One.’ Again, the Buddha has already severed habitual tendencies, but the Two Vehicles still have not exhausted their habitual tendencies. It is like the bhikṣu Cowherd, who for five hundred lives was a king of cattle, and now even in the present still constantly chews cud like a cow, because in every life he has been born from among cattle. Again, like another bhikṣu, although already attaining undefiled wisdom, he constantly gazes at himself in a mirror, because through many lives he was born from courtesans. Again, like another bhikṣu who constantly leaps and jumps upon balconies and platforms, because through many lives he was born from monkeys. Therefore they cannot be called ‘the World-Honored One.’”
Asked: “When the scriptures say, ‘Thus have I heard,’ does this mean that when the Buddha was in the world speaking Dharma, he said, ‘I heard,’ or does it mean that after the Buddha’s nirvāṇa, those who compiled the Dharma treasury said, ‘I heard’? For the first twenty years while the Buddha was in the world speaking Dharma, Ānanda did not hear—why then does he say, ‘I heard’?”
Answered: “There is a saying that the devas told this to Ānanda. Again, there is a saying that the Buddha, with the mind of entering the world to save beings, spoke Dharma in such a way that Ānanda came to know it. Again, there is a saying that Ānanda heard it from the bhikṣus. Again, there is a saying that Ānanda once made a vow before the Buddha, saying: ‘May the Buddha not give me robes, and not allow others to invite me for food. Ānanda seeks only the Dharma, and for this reason reverently serves the Buddha and attends to the Buddha’s needs, not for the sake of robes and food. The bhikṣus are only able to see the World-Honored One at morning and at evening. May the World-Honored One not treat me in this way, but rather whenever I wish to see the World-Honored One, let me be able to see him. And further, as for all the Dharma that the Buddha spoke in the first twenty years, may the World-Honored One fully speak it for me.’”
Asked: “The Dharma sentences spoken by the Buddha in those twenty years, how were they spoken?”
Answered: “The Buddha, possessing skillful means, could with a single Dharma sentence expound boundless Dharma, and could also gather boundless Dharma into a single sentence. The Buddha only needed to briefly express his meaning, and Ānanda would entirely comprehend, because Ānanda possessed keen and powerful retention. As to the so-called eighty-thousand Dharma, some say: ‘Just as people call the roots, trunk, branches, and leaves together “a tree,” so the Buddha in his whole life speaking Dharma for beings is called one treasury—this makes eighty-thousand.’ Some say: ‘Each time the Buddha sat and spoke Dharma is called one treasury—this makes eighty-thousand.’ Some say: ‘The sixteen words spoken by the Buddha make a half-gāthā, thirty-two words make one gāthā—this makes eighty-thousand.’ Some say: ‘With long and short gāthās, forty-two words make one gāthā—this makes eighty-thousand.’ Some say: ‘Each half-month when the Buddha spoke the precepts once for the assembly, that is called one treasury—this makes eighty-thousand.’ Some say: ‘The Buddha himself spoke sixty-six thousand gāthās as one treasury—this makes eighty-thousand.’ Again, some say: ‘The Buddha said, “Afflictions are eighty-thousand, and thus the Dharma treasury is likewise this number”—thus there are eighty-thousand Dharma treasuries.’”
Asked: “Why is it that in the Sūtras and the Abhidharma, the words of the Buddha are not placed at the beginning, yet in the recitation of the Vinaya, it begins at once with the words spoken by the Buddha?”
Answered: “This is because of the excellence, and also because it was personally established by the Buddha. In the Sūtras, there are Dharma teachings spoken by the various disciples of the Buddha, such as Śakro Devānām Indraḥ, saying that giving is foremost. Why so? ‘Because by the reason of giving I became the king of the devas, and all my wishes are fulfilled as I desire.’ The Buddha’s speaking of Dharma is also like this. At times, in a place where the Buddha manifests, it is a transformation-body Buddha who speaks the Dharma. The Vinaya is not like this; in the Vinaya, all is spoken by the Buddha himself. Therefore, the words of the Buddha are placed at the beginning.
“Again, in the Piṭaka of the Sūtras, the Buddha speaks Dharma according to places and according to occasions, but the Vinaya is not like this. If an event arises in a dwelling, the precept is not established inside the dwelling, but it must be established outside the dwelling. If the community of Saṅghas has an incident among lay people, the precept must be established among the Saṅghas. If the community of Saṅghas has an incident in a village, the precept must be established among the Saṅghas. If there is an incident among the five assemblies, then the precept must be established among the bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs. Therefore, the words of the Buddha are placed at the beginning.
“What is called Vaiśālī is the name of a country. Some countries take the name of the king as the name of the country; or they take the name of the land as the name of the country; or they take the name of the city as the designation. This country takes the nāga as the emblem of its own state.
“The village of Kalaṇḍaka is named after a bird. Another explanation is that the head of the village was named Sudina, because his father and mother prayed to the deities and received him, and thus his name means ‘Received as requested.’
“What in the human realm is called wealth and nobility, wealth has two kinds. One kind is wealth in sentient beings, another kind is not in sentient beings. That which is not in sentient beings consists of much gold, silver, the seven precious things, stores of treasure, granaries of wealth, fields, houses, and dwellings. That which is wealth in sentient beings consists of many slaves and servants, elephants, horses, cattle, and sheep. Therefore, it is called wealth. What is called nobility, it is either being the ruler of a state, or having virtuous conduct that is fine and beautiful, and being honored and respected by the multitudes. Therefore, it is called nobility. From the moment of taking refuge in the Three Jewels, the Three Refuges are established.”
Asked: “The Three Refuges, what is their own nature?”
“Some disputants say: ‘The Three Refuges are a Dharma teaching, they have no nature apart from the teaching.’ At the time of receiving the Three Refuges, one kneels, joins the palms, and with the mouth recites the Three Refuges—this is called the teaching of body and speech. If one only values the mind, and body and speech have no teaching, then this can be called teaching and yet not teaching. Others say: ‘The Three Refuges have the nature of the three karmas; the so-called three karmas are body, speech, and mind.’ Others say: ‘The Three Refuges are to regulate and transform one’s own five aggregates toward goodness, and with this take refuge in the Three Jewels.’ The Three Refuges have the meaning of seeking protection. This is just as when someone has committed a crime, and flees to another country in order to seek protection. The king of that country says: ‘Since you wish to seek my protection and to be without fear, then do not step beyond the boundaries of my land, and do not transgress my commands. Thus you can obtain my protection.’ Sentient beings are also like this: because they are captured by Māra, there is birth and death, and the retribution of sins. They take refuge in the Three Jewels in order to seek protection. If they sincerely take refuge in the Three Jewels, without two minds, without transgressing the Buddha’s teachings, then even the evil Māra king cannot bring them harm.
“In the past there was a dove, pursued by a hawk. It hid in the shadow of Śāriputra, yet still it trembled in fear. When it moved into the shadow of the Buddha, it became calm without fear. The great ocean may be moved, yet that dove was unmoved in peace. Why was this so? Because the Buddha possesses great compassion, whereas Śāriputra does not possess great compassion. The “Buddha has completely cut off his habitual tendencies, but Śāriputra has not yet completely cut off his habitual tendencies. The Buddha cultivated the practices of a Bodhisattva through three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, but Śāriputra cultivated ascetic practices through sixty lives. Because of these reasons, when the dove entered the shadow of Śāriputra, there was still fear, but when it entered the shadow of the Buddha, there was no fear.”
Asked: “If taking refuge in the Three Jewels can eliminate sins and eliminate fear, then since Devadatta also took refuge in the Three Jewels, and with devotion went forth from home, received the complete precepts, how is it that he yet committed the three heinous crimes and fell into the Avīci Hell?”
Answered: “What is called save is to save those who can be protected. Devadatta’s sins were vast and grave, and moreover what he committed was fixed karma; therefore he was difficult to save.”
Asked: “If a man of great sin cannot be saved by the Buddha, while those without sin do not need the Buddha’s protection, then why is it said that the Three Jewels can protect?”
Answered: “Although Devadatta took refuge in the Three Jewels, in his heart he was not truly sincere, and the conditions of the Three Refuges were not fulfilled. He always pursued various personal benefits and fame, proclaimed himself to be an all-knowing man, and contended against the Buddha. Because of this reason, although the Three Jewels have great power, they could not save him. For example, King Ajātaśatru, though he had the five heinous sins and ought to fall into Avīci Hell, because with sincere heart he took refuge in the Buddha, he was able to extinguish the sin of Avīci Hell and only fell into the Black Rope Hell. If it were an ordinary person’s heavy sin, in seven days it could be completely extinguished—this is all the protective power of the Three Jewels.”
Asked: “If it is said that because Devadatta’s sins were extremely heavy, therefore he could not be saved, yet in the sūtras it is said, ‘If a person takes refuge in the Buddha, he will not fall into the three evil destinies,’ what then does this mean?”
Answered: “Because Devadatta had taken refuge in the Three Jewels, though he fell into Avīci Hell, his suffering was light, and he could from time to time receive rest. It is like a man in mountains and forests, in desolate wilds, in places of terror: if he recollects the merit of the Buddha, the terror immediately vanishes. Therefore, taking refuge in the Three Jewels, its protection is not an empty name.”
Asked: “Within the Four Noble Truths, under which Truth are the Three Jewels included? Within the twenty-two faculties, under which faculties are they included? Within the eighteen elements, under which elements are they included? Within the twelve sense-fields, under which sense-fields are they included? Within the five aggregates, under which aggregates are they included?”
Answered: “Within the Four Noble Truths, the Three Jewels are included under the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, and partly they are included under the Truth of the Path. Within the twenty-two faculties, they are included under the three faculties: the faculty of the unknown, the faculty of the known, and the faculty of ignorance. Within the eighteen elements, they are included under the mind element, the mental consciousness element, and the dharma element. Within the twelve sense-fields, they are included under the mind sense-field and the dharma sense-field. Within the five aggregates, they are included under the undefiled five aggregates. The Buddha Jewel, within the Four Noble Truths, is partly included under the Truth of the Path. The Dharma Jewel, within the Four Noble Truths, is included under the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering. The Saṅgha Jewel, within the Four Noble Truths, is partly included under the Truth of the Path. The Buddha Jewel, within the twenty-two faculties, is included under the faculty of ‘having understood all’. The Dharma Jewel, because it is the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, is unconditioned, therefore it is not included under the faculties. The Saṅgha Jewel, within the twenty-two faculties, is included under the three undefiled faculties. The Buddha Jewel, within the eighteen elements, is partly included under the mind element, the mental consciousness element, and the dharma element. Within the twelve sense-fields, it is partly included under the mind sense-field and the dharma sense-field. Within the five aggregates, it is partly included under the undefiled five aggregates. The Dharma Jewel, within the eighteen elements, is partly included under the dharma element. Within the twelve sense-fields, it is partly included under the dharma sense-field. The Dharma Jewel is not included under the five aggregates, because the aggregates are conditioned, while the Dharma Jewel is unconditioned. The Saṅgha Jewel, within the eighteen elements, is partly included under the mind element, the mental consciousness element, and the dharma element. Within the twelve sense-fields, it is also partly included under the mind sense-field and the dharma sense-field. Within the five aggregates, it is partly included under the undefiled five aggregates.”
Asked: “When taking refuge in the Buddha, is it taking refuge in Śākyamuni Buddha, or is it taking refuge in the Buddhas of the three times?”
Answered: “It is taking refuge in the Buddhas of the three times. Because the Dharma-body of the Buddhas of the three times is identical, taking refuge in one Buddha is taking refuge in the Buddhas of the three times, for the Buddha-body has no difference. Some say, ‘If there are practitioners who take refuge in the Buddhas of the three times, then it is like when the gods themselves said they were disciples of Kāśyapa Buddha, or disciples of Krakucchanda Buddha. Among the seven Buddhas of the past, some declared themselves to be disciples of such-and-such a Buddha. From this point of view, one should only take refuge in one Buddha, and should not take refuge in the Buddhas of the three times.’ Others say, ‘This statement is incorrect. Why so? Because in the Vaiśravaṇa Sūtra it is said that King Vaiśravaṇa took refuge in the Buddhas of the past, future, and present three times. Because of this principle, one should indeed take refuge in the Buddhas of the three times.’”
Asked: “If this is so, then what is the meaning when the devas each claimed themselves to be disciples of some particular Buddha?”
Answered: “The words of the devas are not sufficient to establish a fixed principle. Although the gods said they took refuge in one particular Buddha, in essence they also took refuge in the Buddhas of the three times. It is only that they used one Buddha as their testimony.”
Asked: “In what manner of taking refuge is it called taking refuge in the Buddha?”
Answered: “By the words spoken at the time of taking refuge, one dedicates toward the merit of omniscience and the fruit of no-more-learning.”
“Then is it taking refuge in the form-body, or taking refuge in the Dharma-body?”
“It is taking refuge in the Dharma-body, not taking refuge in the form-body, because the form-body is not considered to be the Buddha.”
Asked: “If the form-body is not the Buddha, then why, when someone made Buddha to bleed, was a commission of a heinous crime?”
Answered: “The form-body is the vessel of the Dharma-body, it is the reliance of the Dharma-body. Therefore, to harm the Buddha’s form-body is to commit a heinous crime, not because the form-body itself is the Buddha, but because of injuring it, the heinous crime is committed.”
“As for taking refuge in the Dharma, in what way of taking refuge is it called taking refuge in the Dharma?”
Answered: “By the words spoken at the time of taking refuge, one dedicates toward the cutting off of desire, toward non-desire, toward the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, toward Nirvāṇa—this is called taking refuge in the Dharma.”
Asked: “Is it taking refuge in the cessation of one’s own body, or is it taking refuge in the cessation of another’s body?”
Answered: “One should take refuge in the cessation of one’s own body and in the cessation of another’s body. This is called taking refuge in the Dharma.”
“If one takes refuge in the Saṅgha, from which aspects should one take refuge?”
Answered: “When it is said ‘taking refuge in the Saṅgha,’ it means dedicating toward the field of merit that gives protection, dedicating toward the merit of the śrāvakas in training and those beyond training. This is called taking refuge in the Saṅgha.”
“Then, is it taking refuge in the Saṅgha of conventional truth, or taking refuge in the Saṅgha who has realized the ultimate truth? If it were to be taking refuge in the Saṅgha of the ultimate truth, then when the Buddha bestowed the Three Refuges to Trapusa and Bhallika, he should not have said, ‘In the future there will be a Saṅgha, you should take refuge.’ For the Saṅgha of the ultimate truth always abides in the world.”
Answered: “Because the Saṅgha of conventional truth is the support of the Saṅgha of the ultimate truth, therefore it is said, ‘In the future there will be a Saṅgha, you should take refuge.’ It is also for the sake of beings respecting the Saṅgha of conventional truth that this was said. The Buddha himself declared: ‘Among all the assemblies, the Buddha-assembly is the foremost and most venerable. This is just like from milk one produces curds, from curds one produces butter, from butter one produces ghee, and from ghee one produces refined butter; refined butter is the most excellent among them.’ The disciples of the Buddha are likewise so. If there are many bhikṣus, those with the four fruits and those on the four paths, being the unsurpassed field of merit, among all the ninety-six types of beings, they are the most supreme and incomparable, none can equal them. Therefore it is said, ‘In the future there will be a Saṅgha, you should take refuge,’ and this does not harm the great meaning.”
Asked: “The Buddha is also Dharma, Dharma is also Dharma, the Saṅgha is also Dharma. All three are one Dharma. What difference is there among the three?”
Answered: “Although they are one Dharma, yet in meaning they are distinguished. Regarding the Three Jewels: the great wisdom realized without a teacher and the accomplishment of all the merits beyond training—this is called the Buddha Jewel; the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, namely the unconditioned—this is called the Dharma Jewel; the merits and wisdom of the śrāvaka disciples in training and beyond training—this is called the Saṅgha Jewel. Speaking in terms of Dharma: the Dharma realized without a teacher and beyond training is called the Buddha Jewel; the unconditioned realm of the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, being neither training nor beyond training Dharma, is called the Dharma Jewel; the Śrāvakas in training and beyond training is called the Saṅgha Jewel. Speaking in terms of faculties: the Buddha is the faculty of ‘having understood all’; the Dharma Jewel is not included under the faculties; the Saṅgha are the three undefiled faculties. Speaking in terms of the Noble Truths: the Buddha is partly included under the Truth of the Path; the Dharma Jewel is the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering; the Saṅgha is partly included under the Truth of the Path. Speaking in terms of the fruition of śramaṇas: the Buddha is a śramaṇa, the Dharma Jewel is the fruition of a śramaṇa; the Saṅgha are śramaṇas, the Dharma Jewel is the fruition of śramaṇas. Speaking in terms of brāhmaṇas: the Buddha is a brāhmaṇa, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit realized by brāhmaṇas; the Saṅgha are brāhmaṇas, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit realized by brāhmaṇas. Speaking in terms of the holy life: the Buddha is the holy life, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit of the holy life; the Saṅgha are the holy life, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit of the holy life. Speaking in terms of cause and fruit: the Buddha is the cause, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit; the Saṅgha are the cause, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit. Speaking in terms of path and fruit: the Buddha is the path, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit; the Saṅgha are the path, the Dharma Jewel is the fruit. The Buddha takes the Dharma as teacher, the Buddha relies on the Dharma to arise; the Dharma is the mother of the Buddha, the Buddha relies on the Dharma to abide.”
Asked: “If the Buddha takes the Dharma as teacher, then among the Three Jewels, why is the Dharma not placed in the first position?”
Answered: “Although the Dharma is the teacher of the Buddha, yet without the Buddha the Dharma cannot be proclaimed. This is what is called, ‘the path is made manifest through people.’ Therefore, the Buddha is placed in the first position.”
At that time Upāli again said to the Buddha: “World-Honored One! If, when receiving the precepts of the Three Refuges, one first recites the Dharma Jewel and afterwards recites the Buddha, can the Three Refuges be accomplished?”
Answered: “If one, being ignorant, recites not in the proper order, such a person does not incur offense and the Three Refuges can be established. But if one understands the meaning within and deliberately inverts the order in speaking, such a one incurs offense and the Three Refuges cannot be accomplished.”
Asked: “If one recites only the Buddha and the Dharma but not the Saṅgha, can the Three Refuges be accomplished? If one recites only the Dharma and the Saṅgha but not the Buddha, can the Three Refuges be accomplished? If one recites only the Buddha and the Saṅgha but not the Dharma Jewel, can the Three Refuges be accomplished?”
Answered: “Such Three Refuges are not accomplished.”
Asked: “If one does not take the Three Refuges, can one obtain the Five Precepts? If one does not accept the Three Refuges, can one obtain the Eight Precepts of Fasting? If one does not accept the Three Refuges, can one uphold the Ten Precepts? If one does not pass through the procedure of the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony (jñapticaturtha-karman), can one obtain the Complete Precepts?”
Answer: “None of these can be obtained. If one wishes to receive the Five Precepts, one must first receive the Three Refuges; only after the Three Refuges are completed can one receive the Five Precepts. The reason the names of the Five Precepts are spoken is so that those who receive them may recognize the names of each precept. It is like, after completing the procedure of the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony, one can then obtain the Complete Precepts. Therefore the Four Dependences, the Four Defeats, the Thirteen Saṅghāvaśeṣa offenses, and such matters are spoken only for the sake of letting people know. Some say: ‘After receiving the Three Refuges, when the precept of abstaining from killing is explained, one thereby obtains the essence of the precepts. The reason that by upholding one precept one gains all five precepts is because if one can uphold a single precept, then one can uphold all the five precepts. Moreover, because the content of the Five Precepts is mutually connected, and also because the original intent of the recipient was to vow to uphold all Five Precepts.’ Some say: ‘Only after the Five Precepts are all completed does one obtain the essence of the precepts.’ Among the various explanations, the correct principle is that after receiving the Three Refuges one then receives the Five Precepts, just as when receiving the Complete Precepts, one must perform the procedure of the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony. If one receives the Eight Precepts or the Ten Precepts, the method is the same as with the Five Precepts.”
“If someone has already previously received the Three Refuges and has become an upāsaka, and afterwards again wishes to receive the Five Precepts, or to receive the Eight Precepts, or to receive the Ten Precepts, must that person again take the Three Refuges?”
Answered: “There is no need again to take the Three Refuges. All these precepts can be obtained because previously the Three Refuges have already been received.”
“If one has not previously taken the Three Refuges, but directly undertakes the procedure of announcement ceremony, can one obtain the essence of the precepts?”
Answered: “To receive the Five Precepts, the Eight Precepts, or the Ten Precepts, it is only necessary to first take the Three Refuges, and one then obtains the essence of the precepts. But to receive the Complete Precepts, one must pass through the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony in order to obtain the Complete Precepts, and not through the Three Refuges. Whoever receives the Complete Precepts must possess deep and abundant merit in order to obtain the precepts. Without many conditions and much strength, it is difficult to obtain these precepts. Therefore one must first receive the Three Refuges, and then through the procedure of the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony with ten bhikṣus participating, one can obtain the Complete Precepts. To receive the Five Precepts, the Eight Precepts, or the Ten Precepts requires little merit and power, thus if one first takes the Three Refuges, one can obtain the precepts and does not require many conditions and much strength.”
“After receiving the Complete Precepts, why is it that only the Four Defeats and the Thirteen Saṅghāvaśeṣa offenses are explained to the ordinand, and not the other contents?”
“Because these two are the most serious. If one transgresses even a single one, then for the rest of one’s life it cannot be restored. Although one may wish to repent and renew oneself, it is extremely difficult. For once one has violated a precept, one must undergo the penalties of parivāsa and mānatta, and in the presence of an assembly of twenty members one must purify the offense. Precepts that are so difficult to maintain, if one is able to uphold them, then the rest of the precepts are easy to maintain. Therefore, there is no need to explain all the rest, and it suffices only to explain these two most important categories.”
Asked: “Are the prātimokṣa precepts undefiled precepts, or are they meditative precepts?”
Answered: “They are neither undefiled precepts nor meditative precepts. These prātimokṣa precepts exist when the Buddha is in the world; when the Buddha is not in the world, then there are no such precepts. But meditative precepts and undefiled precepts, whether or not the Buddha is in the world, still exist in the world. The prātimokṣa precepts are obtained through conferral, whereas meditative precepts and undefiled precepts are not obtained through conferral. The prātimokṣa precepts are obtained from others, whereas meditative precepts and undefiled precepts are not obtained from others. The prātimokṣa precepts are in effect at all times, whether one is asleep or awake, whether with wholesome mind, unwholesome mind, or indeterminate mind. Meditative precepts and undefiled precepts are present only when the mind is in meditation or undefiled; in other mental states they are not present. The prātimokṣa precepts are possessed only by humans, while meditative precepts and undefiled precepts are possessed by both humans and devas. The prātimokṣa precepts exist only in the Desire Realm, whereas meditative precepts and undefiled precepts exist in both the Desire Realm and the Form Realm. The undefiled precepts are perfected in the Formless Realm. The prātimokṣa precepts are possessed only by the disciples of the Buddha, but meditative precepts are also possessed by non-Buddhists.”
Asked: “Among the five precepts of an upāsaka, which transgressions are real offenses, and which are prohibitive offenses?”
Answered: “Four are real offenses; the precept against drinking intoxicants is a prohibitive offense. The precept of abstaining from intoxicants is included together with the other four so that they form the Five Precepts, because drinking intoxicants is the root of indulgence, and after drinking intoxicants one may transgress the other four precepts. For example, in the time of Kāśyapa Buddha there was a householder who, because of drinking intoxicants, committed sexual misconduct with a woman, stole, and killed another’s chicken. When others asked him, ‘Why did you do this?’ he replied, ‘I did not.’ Because of drinking intoxicants, in one instant he broke four precepts. There are also cases of people, after drinking intoxicants, committing the four heinous offenses, though they cannot destroy the harmony of the Saṅgha. Although such acts are not due to karmic causes from past lives, they still have the retribution of madness. Because of drinking intoxicants, a person becomes deluded, inverted, and confused, just like a madman. Moreover, because drinking intoxicants brings about delusion, one neglects right undertakings such as meditation, reciting scriptures, and assisting in the affairs of the assembly. Although drinking intoxicants in itself is not an actual offense, yet for these reasons it is treated as equal to an actual offense.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “Do the upāsaka precepts apply only with regard to beings, or do they also apply with regard to non-beings? Are the objects of the precepts only those beings who can be killed, from whom things can be stolen, with whom one can commit sexual misconduct, and to whom one can speak falsehoods? With regard to beings who cannot be killed, from whom nothing can be stolen, with whom sexual misconduct cannot be performed, and who cannot be deceived, do the precepts also apply to them?”
Answered: “Toward beings, one gains the four precepts; toward non-beings, one gains the precept of abstaining from intoxicants. With regard to beings—whether they are those who can be killed or those who cannot be killed, those with whom sexual misconduct is possible or those with whom it is not possible, those from whom property can be stolen or those from whom it cannot be stolen, those to whom false words can be spoken or those to whom false words cannot be spoken—the upāsaka precepts are valid. From the lowest Avīci Hell up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, throughout the trichiliocosm, even up to the Tathāgata himself, all living beings are included as the objects of these four precepts. For at the initial moment of receiving the precepts, one vows ‘not to kill any being, not to steal from any being, not to commit sexual misconduct with any being, not to speak false words to any being,’ without any limitation or restriction. Therefore the application of these precepts extends to all beings.
“As to the method of conferring precepts, first one expounds the Dharma for the ordinand, guides him, and explains to him, so that he gives rise to a mind of compassion and pity toward all beings. Once the superior mind has arisen, then one obtains the superior precepts. What is called ‘obtaining the precepts’ means that the ordinand, facing all beings, upholds the four precepts. Each of the four precepts, when analyzed in detail, gives rise to twelve precept-articles. With regard to beings: not killing, not stealing, not committing sexual misconduct, not speaking falsehood. All of these four evil deeds arise due to three causes: first, arising from greed; second, arising from hatred; third, arising from delusion. Thus, toward all beings there are twelve kinds of evil karma; by opposing these evil deeds one obtains the essence of twelve wholesome precepts. With respect to all boundless beings, it is likewise so.
“Suppose a million or ten million Arhats enter Nirvāṇa, the precepts previously obtained from those Arhats remain always valid, and do not cease merely because those Arhats have entered Nirvāṇa. As for upholding the precept of abstaining from intoxicants, when one receives it, from beginning to end of his life, in the whole trichiliocosm, for every drop of liquor, each time one swallows a mouthful of liquor one violates the precept, because at the time of receiving the precept one vows to abstain from all intoxicants without exception. Suppose all liquor were to vanish, even then the precept of abstaining from intoxicants would remain valid and would not be lost.”
“At the initial receiving of the precepts, the scope of the precept against sexual misconduct includes the three bodily parts of all women. If later one marries a wife, does one transgress this precept?”
Answered: “There is no transgression. The reason is that originally what was obtained with respect to women was the precept against sexual misconduct. Now it is one’s own wife; because it is not misconduct, there is no transgression of this precept. According to this principle, all other cases are the same. As for the Eight Precepts and the Ten Precepts, with regard to beings and non-beings the obtaining of precepts is likewise so. Of the two hundred and fifty precepts received by a bhikṣu, seven precepts are obtained from all beings; according to their respective meanings they are further divided into twenty-one precepts. If from beings arise seven kinds of evil acts of body and speech, these mainly arise from three causes: first, arising from greed; second, arising from hatred; third, arising from delusion. These three causes give rise to seven kinds of evil acts; three times seven becomes twenty-one evils. By opposing these evil acts, from each being one obtains twenty-one precepts. For all beings the obtaining of precepts is also thus. From this principle one may infer that it is possible at the same time to obtain immeasurable precepts; but it is not possible at the same time to transgress all the precepts and thereby at the same time abandon the precepts.
“As for the rules concerning the breaking of precepts, if one violates a grave precept, then one cannot advance further in the practice of the precepts. If, having received the precepts, one then abandons them, though afterwards one may wish to receive them again, still one can never again obtain them. If, after breaking the grave precepts of the Eight Precepts, one wishes again to receive the Eight Precepts, or wishes to receive the Five Precepts, or the Ten Precepts, or the Complete Precepts, or together receive the meditative precepts or the undefiled precepts—none of these can be obtained. If, after breaking the grave precepts of the Five Precepts, one wishes to receive the Eight Precepts, or the Ten Precepts, or the Complete Precepts, or the meditative precepts, or the undefiled precepts—none of these precepts can be obtained. If, after violating the Five Precepts, one then wishes to abandon the Five Precepts and newly receive the Ten Precepts, this also is not possible. If, after abandoning the precepts, one hopes again to receive the Five Precepts, or the Eight Precepts, or the Ten Precepts, or the Complete Precepts, or the meditative precepts, or the undefiled precepts—none of these can be obtained. If, after breaking the grave precepts of the Ten Precepts and the Complete Precepts, one still hopes to make progress in practice, or, after having already discarded the precepts, one again hopes to receive them, it is as explained above, the result is the same as that of breaking the Five Precepts.”
Asked: “Among the meditative precepts, the undefiled precepts, and the prātimokṣa precepts, which precept is the most supreme?”
Answer: “The meditative precepts are the most supreme. Some say, ‘The prātimokṣa precepts are the most supreme, because only when the Buddha appears in the world do these precepts arise, whereas the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts exist at all times. The objects of the prātimokṣa precepts are all beings and also non-beings, whereas the objects of the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts are only worldly beings. All beings, when they give rise to a mind of compassion, can obtain the prātimokṣa precepts; the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts are obtained without depending on a compassionate mind. The foundation by which the Dharma of the Buddha is maintained lies in the existence of the seven assemblies in the world, and the continuity of the paths and fruits of the three vehicles—all of these are based upon the prātimokṣa precepts. As for the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts, they are not like this. Therefore, within the three realms, the prātimokṣa precepts are the most venerable and supreme.’
“At the initial receiving of these precepts, one must first perform the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony, and then the receiving of the precepts can be accomplished. At the very beginning, in the first thought of receiving the precepts, it may be called karma, and also called a karmic path. After the second thought onward, it becomes accomplishment of the precepts, but it is only karma, not a karmic path. This is because in the very first thought of the essence of the precepts, the volition is fulfilled and is united with thought, therefore it is called volitional karmic path. And because by means of this earlier precept as cause, the later precepts arise naturally, therefore they are only called karma, and not karmic path. The very first thought of the precepts is both a precept of action and a precept of non-action; the precepts that arise afterwards in succession are only precepts of non-action, not precepts of action. The very first thought of the essence of the precepts can also be called a precept, can also be called wholesome conduct, can also be called moral restraint; the subsequent precepts that arise in sequence also carry these same meanings.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “In the three times, in which time can the precepts be obtained?”
Answered: “In the present moment, within a single thought, the precepts are obtained. The past and the future are Dharma, not beings; therefore they cannot obtain precepts. The present single thought is a being; therefore precepts can be obtained.”
Asked: “Are precepts obtained in a state of wholesome mind, or in an unwholesome mind, or in an indeterminate mind, or are they obtained in a mindless state?”
Answered: “In all of these four kinds of mental states, precepts can be obtained. First, with a wholesome mind one bows to the feet of the Saṅgha, receives robe and bowl, petitions the preceptor, earnestly requests to receive the precepts, kneels with joined palms, and after the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony, continuing in a wholesome mind, the essence of the precepts is accomplished—this is obtaining precepts within a wholesome mind.
“If, having previously practiced according to the proper sequence, though one has long generated wholesome mind and aroused the various moral trainings, yet at the time of performing the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony one gives rise to greed, hatred, or other unwholesome thoughts, then in that mind the essence of the precepts is accomplished. This is called obtaining precepts within an unwholesome mind. Yet even so, it is through the prior wholesome mind and the strength of wholesome instruction that the precepts are obtained, not through the power of the unwholesome mind.
“If, having first aroused wholesome mind to initiate the moral trainings, but during the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony one either falls asleep or enters into sleep, then in the mind of sleep the precepts are accomplished. This is called obtaining precepts within an indeterminate mind.
“If, having first aroused wholesome mind to initiate the moral trainings, but during the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony one enters into the attainment of the cessation of perception and feeling, then at that moment the essence of the precepts is accomplished. This is called obtaining precepts within a mindless state.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “If a lay follower does not receive the Five Precepts, but directly receives the Ten Precepts, can he obtain the precepts?”
Answered: “In that case he simultaneously obtains two sets of precepts: he obtains the upāsaka precepts and he obtains the sāmaṇera precepts. If he does not receive the Five Precepts or the Ten Precepts, but directly receives the Complete Precepts, then at one time he obtains three sets of precepts.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “If, when receiving the Complete Precepts, one can simultaneously obtain three sets of precepts, then why is it necessary to proceed in sequence, first receiving the Five Precepts, then the Ten Precepts, and finally the Complete Precepts?”
Answered: “Although it is possible to obtain three sets of precepts at once, yet in learning the Dharma of the Buddha, one must follow the sequence. First, by receiving the Five Precepts, one disciplines oneself, and faith and joy gradually increase. Next, one receives the Ten Precepts; and when one has received the Ten Precepts, one’s wholesome roots become profound, and one then proceeds to receive the Complete Precepts. By receiving the precepts in this gradual order, one can taste the flavor of the Dharma of the Buddha, causing deep joy and faith to become firm, not easily retreating or declining. It is like swimming in the great ocean—one must gradually swim toward the depths; so too in entering the great ocean of the Dharma of the Buddha, it is the same principle. If one were to receive the Complete Precepts all at once, one would lose the order, and would also disrupt proper deportment. Furthermore, some beings ought to uphold the Five Precepts and thereby realize the fruit of the path; some beings, by upholding the Ten Precepts, realize the fruit of the path. Because of these various causes and conditions, the Tathāgata has declared this sequence. If one first upholds the Five Precepts and then upholds the Ten Precepts, at the time of upholding the Ten Precepts, one accomplishes two sets of precepts: the Five Precepts and the Ten Precepts. After upholding the Ten Precepts, then one upholds the Complete Precepts; at the time of upholding the Complete Precepts, one accomplishes three sets of precepts: the Five Precepts, the Ten Precepts, and the Complete Precepts. Of the seven methods of receiving precepts, only in the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony must one follow the sequence, obtaining it on the third occasion; the remaining six methods of receiving precepts are accomplished in a single moment, without a threefold sequence.
“If one obtains the three sets of precepts at one time, then when wishing to abandon them, if one says, ‘I am a sāmaṇera, not a bhikṣu,’ then he loses the Complete Precepts but still retains two sets of precepts: the Five Precepts and the Ten Precepts. If he says, ‘I am an upāsaka, not a sāmaṇera,’ then he loses the Ten Precepts, but the remaining Five Precepts remain. If he says, ‘I abandon all precepts of both household and renunciation, I am an upāsaka who has taken refuge,’ then all three sets of precepts are simultaneously lost, but the Three Refuges are not lost. If one has obtained the three sets of precepts in sequence, then the method of abandoning them is likewise sequential, just as has been explained in the case of receiving them all at once.”
“If one was previously an upāsaka, and after going forth receives the Ten Precepts, does this constitute abandoning the Five Precepts?”
Answered: “It does not constitute abandonment. Only the name is lost, and the rank of receiving precepts is lost, but the essence of the precepts is not lost. It is losing the designation of upāsaka and obtaining the designation of sāmaṇera; losing the rank of layperson and obtaining the order of renunciant.”
“If a sāmaṇera receives the Complete Precepts, does he thereby lose the Ten Precepts and the Five Precepts?”
Answered: “He does not lose them. Only the names and the rank are lost, but the precepts themselves are not lost. He loses the designation of sāmaṇera and obtains the designation of bhikṣu; he loses the rank of sāmaṇera and obtains the rank of bhikṣu. From beginning to end it is always the precepts, but depending on time and identity the names differ. It is like the leaves of a tree: in spring and summer they are green, in autumn they are yellow, in winter they are white; because the seasons differ, the color of the leaves differs, but it is always the same leaf. The precepts are likewise so: always the same precepts, only changing with time. Or again, like milk, curds, butter, and refined butter: though four stages are distinguished, and though they differ as time passes, in reality it is one and the same substance. The precepts are likewise so: though there are three stages, the precepts themselves do not differ.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “When one receives the upāsaka precepts, if one cannot uphold all five, but only one, or two, or up to four, can one still obtain the precepts?”
Answered: “One cannot.”
“If one cannot obtain the precepts, then why do some sūtras speak of ‘partial upāsaka, greater upāsaka, and complete upāsaka’? What does this mean?”
Answered: “This is said in order to indicate the difference in the amount of merit from upholding precepts, not to mean that one may receive only a portion of the precepts.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “If one were to receive the Five Precepts for one day, or two days, up to ten days, may they be received in this way?”
Answered: “They may not. The precepts originally established by the Buddha each have a fixed duration. If one receives the Five Precepts, they must be upheld for life. If one receives the Eight Precepts, they must be upheld for one day and one night. Therefore, what was mentioned above is not receiving precepts. The precepts obtained through the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony are divided into three grades: the Five Precepts are the lower-grade precepts, the Ten Precepts are the middle-grade precepts, and the Complete Precepts are the upper-grade precepts. The upholding of the Five Precepts is also of three grades: if received with a lesser mind, then one obtains the lesser precepts; if received with a middle mind, one obtains the middle precepts; if received with a superior mind, one obtains the superior precepts. The Ten Precepts and the Complete Precepts also each have three grades, just like the Five Precepts.
“If, after obtaining the essence of the precepts with a lesser mind, one then receives the Ten Precepts with a superior or middle mind, the Five Precepts previously obtained do not increase or advance further. Beyond the Five Precepts, one obtains the further precepts such as abstaining from eating at improper times and the other remaining rules. Previously, in receiving the Five Precepts, one had obtained only the original lesser precepts—that is, the Five Precepts of the lesser grade. If one then receives the Complete Precepts with a middle or superior mind, the Five Precepts previously obtained do not become more or less, but remain the same Five Precepts; yet beyond the Five Precepts, all the other precepts are obtained, because at the time of receiving the Complete Precepts the mind has become more advanced, and therefore one gains the advanced essence of the precepts. From this it can be inferred that the prātimokṣa precepts cannot be obtained repeatedly.
“According to the sequence, the Five Precepts are the lower-grade precepts, the Ten Precepts are the middle-grade precepts, and the Complete Precepts are the upper-grade precepts. From this principle it may also be said: if one receives the Five Precepts with a superior mind, these are superior precepts; if one receives the Ten Precepts with a middle mind, these are middle precepts; if one receives the Complete Precepts with a lesser mind, these are lesser precepts. By this principle, depending on whether the mind is superior, middle, or lesser, the precepts obtained are likewise superior, middle, or lesser, without fixed limitation.
“If, when inviting the preceptor to confer the Ten Precepts, the preceptor is not present, one can still obtain the Ten Precepts. If, during the ceremony of receiving the Ten Precepts, the preceptor dies, and at that moment, the ordinand knows that he has died, then the precepts cannot be obtained. If the ordinand does not know that he has died, then the precepts can be obtained.
“If, however, one is receiving the precepts through the Four-Announcement Karma Ceremony, and the preceptor who confers the precepts is not present, then the precepts cannot be received, because the number of bhikṣus is insufficient. If the number of bhikṣus is sufficient, then even without the preceptor of precepts, one can still receive them.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “May an upāsaka who has received the Five Precepts engage in trade?”
Answered: “He is permitted to engage in trade. But an upāsaka may not engage in five kinds of professions. First, he may not make a livelihood by trading in livestock. If he himself owns livestock and sells them directly, this is permitted, but he should not sell to a butcher. Second, he may not make a livelihood by trading in bows, arrows, knives, spears, and other weapons, but if he already owns such items and sells them directly, this is permitted. Third, he may not make a livelihood by trading in intoxicants. If he himself has such things, he may sell them directly. Fourth, he may not engage in oil-pressing, for in this process many insects are killed. This is the case in Sindhu. In the country of Jibin, if sesame contains no insects, then oil-pressing has no fault. Fifth, he may not engage in the dyeing profession of the five great colors, for in this too many insects are killed. The foreign methods of dyeing lākṣā and other substances kill many insects, therefore they are not permitted. The dyeing method of Qin, when making blue, also kills many insects, and belongs among the five great dyeing professions.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “The Eight Precepts of Fasting include abstaining from food after noon, so altogether there are nine rules. Why is it called the Eight Precepts?”
Answered: “Among the fasting precepts, abstaining from food after noon is the substance itself, and the other eight matters are supports that accomplish the fasting precept. They support one another and are called the eight branches of fasting. Therefore it is called the Eight Precepts, and not the Nine Precepts.”
“If a person upholds the Eight Precepts, among the seven assemblies, to which assembly does he belong?”
“Although he has not received precepts for life, yet because he upholds precepts for one day and one night, he should be called an upāsaka. Some say: ‘If he is called an upāsaka, he has no lifelong precepts; if he is not called an upāsaka, yet he has the one-day-and-night precepts; therefore they are called those who are in-between.’ Such words are found in some sūtras.”
Upāli again asked the Buddha: “Beyond the seven assemblies, are there still prātimokṣa precepts?”
Answered: “There are. The Eight Precepts of Fasting are such. By this principle it is inferred that if one upholds the Eight Precepts of Fasting, one does not belong to the seven assemblies. To uphold the Eight Precepts of Fasting means to abstain from killing beings for one day and one night, and to keep speech firm and resolute. One must not confuse the Eight Precepts of Fasting with the lifelong precepts.”
Question: “When receiving the Eight Precepts, may one receive them for two days, three days, up to ten days at once?”
Answered: “The Buddha originally established them as precepts of one day and one night, and they may not exceed this limit. If one has the ability to uphold them for one day and one night, then after that period is completed, one may uphold them again in succession. In this way, according to one’s capacity, one need not calculate the number of days of receiving precepts.”
“To receive the fasting precepts, one must receive them from others. From whom may one receive them? From the five assemblies one may receive the precepts. After receiving the Eight Precepts, if one beats living beings, the fasting precepts are impure. Even if one does not beat beings on that same day, but intends to beat them on the next day, the fasting precepts are impure. In short: if by body or speech one does acts contrary to proper deportment, even if one has not broken the fasting, it is still impure. If body and speech are pure, but the mind gives rise to thoughts of greed, hatred, or harm, then this is also called impure fasting. If body, speech, and mind are pure, but one does not cultivate the six recollections, this is also called impure fasting. After upholding the Eight Precepts, if one diligently cultivates the six recollections, this is called pure fasting. There is a scripture which says: ‘If one were to become the king of Jambudvīpa, having mastery over all the people of Jambudvīpa, and over all gold, silver, and treasures, being able to rule them at will—even with such merit as that of the king of Jambudvīpa, it would not amount to even one-sixteenth of the merit of pure Eight Precepts of Fasting.’
“If someone wishes to receive the Eight Precepts of Fasting, but first indulges in sensual pleasures, or plays music, or greedily eats meat, or engages in various play and laughter—in such reckless conduct, after indulging fully, he then goes to receive the fasting precepts. In this case, whether he has indulged before or after taking the fasting precepts, the fasting precepts are not accomplished. If one originally had no thought of receiving fasting precepts, but engaged in various reckless pleasures, and later meets a good friend and receives the fasting precepts, then whether the indulgence was before or after the fasting precepts, the fasting precepts are accomplished. If one originally intends to receive the fasting precepts, but various difficulties obstruct and he is unable to do so, and later, after removing the obstacles, he receives the fasting precepts, then whether indulgence was before or after the fasting precepts, the fasting precepts are accomplished.”
Asked: “If one receives only the fasting precepts for the day but not for the night, can one obtain the Eight Precepts? If one wishes to receive the fasting precepts for the night but not for the day, can one obtain the Eight Precepts?”
Answered: “One cannot. The reason is because the Buddha originally allowed the acceptance of the fasting precepts for one day and one night. Since they have a fixed duration, it is not permissible to go against this.”
Upāli again said to the Buddha: “If this is not possible, then why does the Leather Chapter say: ‘The bhikṣu Billion-jewel-ear, while in a wilderness place, saw many hungry ghosts suffering various punishments. Some enjoyed happiness in the day but suffered punishment at night; some enjoyed happiness at night but suffered punishment in the day. The reason was that when they were humans, some upheld the precepts in the day but committed evil at night; some upheld the precepts at night but committed evil in the day. Therefore their conditions were different.’ How should this principle be explained?”
Answer: “Any teaching of past-life causes and conditions cannot be taken as authoritative. What is spoken there is neither Sūtra nor Vinaya, and cannot be taken as a definitive true principle. Some also say: ‘This was perhaps Kātyāyana, in order to convert Billion-jewel-ear, who manifested such a change to inspire his mind, and it was not an actual event.’ If one has already received the fasting precepts and then wishes to abandon them, one does not necessarily need to rely on the five assemblies to abandon them. If, when one wishes to eat, one merely tells another person, this constitutes abandoning the fasting precepts.
“As for obtaining the prātimokṣa precepts, from among the five destinies, only in the human destiny can they be obtained. In the other four destinies they cannot be obtained. For example, in the heavenly realm, because attachment to pleasure is too strong, precepts cannot be obtained. Just as before, when Mahāmaudgalyāyana had a disciple who was sick, he ascended to Trāyastriṃśa Heaven to ask Jīvaka. At that time the gods were entering the Pleasure Garden. Maudgalyāyana stood by the roadside, but none of the gods looked at him. When Jīvaka later arrived, he looked back and saw Maudgalyāyana, raised one hand to him, and passed by in a chariot. Maudgalyāyana thought: ‘This man was originally my disciple among humans, but now, enjoying heavenly bliss, he is completely lost in pleasure and has forgotten his true mind.’ Maudgalyāyana then used his spiritual power to stop the chariot. Jīvaka descended and bowed at his feet. Maudgalyāyana reproved him in many ways, saying he ought not to act like this. Jīvaka replied: ‘Because I was your disciple when I was human, I raised my hand to greet you. Have you ever seen a deva like me? Since I was born in the heavens, because of my deep attachment to pleasure, my mind is not free, so I am like this.’
“Maudgalyāyana asked Jīvaka: ‘When a disciple is ill, how should it be treated?’ Jīvaka replied: ‘Merely by fasting, it can be cured.’ Sometimes Maudgalyāyana exhorted Śakro devānām indraḥ, saying: ‘The arising of a Buddha in the world is rare; why do you not constantly draw near, inquire, and accept the true Dharma?’ Śakra wished to explain to Maudgalyāyana, so he sent a messenger commanding a certain deva to come. The call was repeated three times, yet the deva still did not come. That deva had only one wife, one musician, and being deeply bound by desire, even though the command of the king of the gods was weighty, he could not give her up. At last he reluctantly came. Śakra asked: ‘Why was this so?’ The deva answered truthfully. Śakra said to Maudgalyāyana: ‘This deva had only one wife, one musician, for his enjoyment, and he could not give her up. How much more I, as king of the gods, who have countless palaces and innumerable goddesses, a hundred flavors in divine food, hundreds of thousands of entertainments, so that looking east I forget the west. Although I know that the arising of a Buddha is hard to encounter and that true Dharma is hard to hear, yet being bound by defiled pleasures I am not free. What use is knowledge then?’”
“As for the method of receiving precepts, one must with a vigorous mind make vows and resolutions for oneself, and only then can the precepts be obtained. The devas are too attached to pleasures, and the power of their wholesome minds is too weak; how could they obtain precepts? Hungry ghosts, because of extreme hunger and thirst, their bodies and minds are as if burning with fire; beings in hells, because of boundless suffering and great torments, their minds overwhelmed with pain, have no opportunity to receive precepts; animals, because of karmic obstacles, understand nothing and have no method to receive precepts. Although in some scriptures it is said that nāgas uphold the fasting precepts, because they have wholesome minds and keep the Eight Precepts for one day and one night, thereby gaining merit of wholesome mind, they do not obtain precepts because of karmic obstacles.
“As to the four continents: only in three continents—Jambudvīpa, Aparagodāniya, Pūrvavideha—and on the islands in the seas between them, can people receive precepts. In Aparagodāniya, the Buddha sent Piṇḍola there to widely perform the Buddha’s work, and there are also the four assemblies of disciples. In the East too there are bhikṣus performing the Buddha’s work with the four assemblies. Only in Uttarakuru there is no Dharma of the Buddha and no possibility of receiving precepts, because of the obstruction of merit and also because of delusion, they do not accept the holy Dharma.
“There are four kinds of people: first, male; second, female; third, the sexless; fourth, the dual-sexed. Among these four, only men and women can receive precepts; the other two, namely the sexless and the dual-sexed, cannot receive precepts. Among men and women, if there are those who kill father or mother, or kill an Arhat, or cause the body of the Buddha to bleed, or destroy the Saṅgha, or defile a bhikṣuṇī, or falsely claim to be a bhikṣu, or leave home not for the sake of the Dharma but for livelihood—these people cut off their wholesome roots, and all such as these cannot receive precepts. In general, those who cling with defilement to the Dharma of the Buddha are truly not worth mentioning. Whether they be devas, nāgas, yakṣas, beings of Uttarakuru, the sexless, the dual-sexed, or various non-humans, all can receive the Three Refuges.”
Asked: “Are the ranges of precepts of the Buddhas of the three times the same?”
Answered: “They are not the same. Whoever obtains precepts always obtains them with respect to beings and non-beings. When one Buddha appears, he liberates innumerable asaṃkhyeya beings into Nirvāṇa without remainder. When the later Buddha appears, the precepts no longer apply to those beings. Thus, the precepts obtained by Buddhas of different times, earlier and later, are each different. For example, Kāśyapa Buddha once liberated innumerable asaṃkhyeya beings into Nirvāṇa without remainder. Those beings obtained precepts from Kāśyapa Buddha, but the precepts of Śākyamuni Buddha do not apply to them.
“All Buddhas have three things equal: first, the merits they accumulate are equal; second, their Dharma body is equal; third, their liberation of beings is equal. All Buddhas have cultivated the Bodhisattva practice through three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, all are fully endowed with the five-part Dharma body, the ten powers, the four kinds of fearlessness, and the eighteen unique qualities; all liberate innumerable asaṃkhyeya beings into Nirvāṇa.”
Asked: “The scriptures say, ‘When one Buddha appears in the world, he liberates ninety nayuta beings into Nirvāṇa.’ Why then is it said that innumerable asaṃkhyeya beings are liberated?”
Answered: “That scripture says, ‘When one Buddha appears in the world, he liberates ninety nayuta beings into Nirvāṇa.’ This only indicates that from that particular Buddha there are that many beings who are liberated. What is spoken of are the ninety nayuta beings who, encountering that Buddha, in his presence are liberated. In summary, there are innumerable asaṃkhyeya beings who enter Nirvāṇa without remainder. The Buddhas of the past, present, and future are completely equal in three respects—accumulation of practice, Dharma body, and liberation of beings—but in the aspect of obtaining precepts from them, they are not equal.”
Asked: “The precepts of evil moral conduct—are they obtained with respect to beings, or with respect to non-beings? Can one fully obtain such precepts?”
Answered: “They are obtained only with respect to beings, and not obtained with respect to non-beings. Some say, ‘With regard to beings that can be killed, one obtains evil precepts; with regard to beings that cannot be killed, one does not obtain evil precepts.’ Others say, ‘With regard to both beings that can be killed and beings that cannot be killed, one obtains evil precepts.’ For example, a butcher killing sheep always harbors the intention to kill, deliberately killing sheep without restriction. Suppose in the human realm or the heavenly realm one does not kill, yet through the turning of saṃsāra there is the possibility of falling into the sheep path; therefore, with regard to all beings, one obtains evil precepts. The twelve kinds of evil moral conduct are likewise so.
“The twelve kinds of evil moral conduct are: first, the butcher; second, the executioner; third, the pig-keeper; fourth, the chicken-keeper; fifth, the fisherman; sixth, the hunter; seventh, the one who catches birds with nets; eighth, the one who catches pythons; ninth, the one who by mantras subdues nāgas; tenth, the prison guard; eleventh, the thief; twelfth, the one whom the king dispatches to seize thieves. These are the twelve kinds of people of evil moral conduct. Such industries as raising silkworms are called ‘not departing from evil moral conduct.’
“The precepts of evil moral conduct are abandoned at three times: at the time of death, at the time when craving and desire are completely cut off, and at the time when one receives the moral precepts. For example, when taking the Three Refuges, at the first recitation one abandons the evil precepts; at the second and third recitations one obtains the wholesome precepts.”
“When a person is engaged in evil precepts, at what moment does he abandon the wholesome precepts and obtain the evil precepts?”
Answered: “At the first declaration, ‘I will become a butcher,’ one abandons the wholesome precepts. At the second and third declarations, ‘I will become a butcher,’ one obtains the evil precepts. Others say: ‘Whenever one abandons the wholesome precepts, at that very moment one immediately obtains the evil precepts. If one who upholds wholesome precepts does not himself vow to become a butcher, but out of greed for profit joins a butcher in killing, then this is called violating the wholesome precepts. If one wishes to abandon the wholesome precepts and obtain the evil precepts, one must oneself make a vow to become a butcher, then one can obtain the evil precepts.’
If one wishes to receive the evil precepts, just by making a vow oneself one obtains them, and need not receive them from another. If one wishes to uphold the precepts of evil moral conduct for one day, two days, up to ten days, or for one year or two years, according to the length of one’s vow, one can freely obtain them. The reason is that evil Dharma accords with the flow of birth-and-death, having no principle of progress upward; therefore one can obtain them according to circumstances. This is not the same as with the wholesome moral precepts.”
Dharma Torch 